Abstract

The extensive use of pesticides in India, particularly in agriculturally intensive regions, has raised significant concerns regarding environmental contamination and associated human health risks. This review synthesizes recent evidence on pesticide residue occurrence in water, milk, vegetables, and soil, with special emphasis on high-risk agricultural districts of Chhattisgarh and comparable regions. Data were compiled from government databases, peer-reviewed literature, and empirical field-based analytical studies employing standardized protocols (APHA, AOAC) and advanced instrumental techniques such as GC–MS, GC– MS/MS, HPLC-PDA, AAS, ICP–MS, and HPTLC. Findings indicate widespread detection of organophosphates, organochlorines, and pyrethroids—including carbaryl, chlorpyrifos, malathion, diazinon, deltamethrin, quinalphos, and 4,4′- DDT—in environmental and food matrices. Several studies reported exceedance of acceptable daily intake (ADI) and acute reference dose (ARfD) values, particularly among children, highlighting elevated vulnerability. Health risk assessments utilizing Hazard Quotient (HQ), Hazard Index (HI), Target Hazard Quotient (THQ), and Lifetime Cancer Risk (LCR) models revealed potential noncarcinogenic and carcinogenic risks in areas proximal to pesticide application sites.These compounds exert toxicity primarily through mechanisms such as acetylcholinesterase inhibition, endocrine disruption, oxidative stress induction, and bioaccumulation, contributing to both acute and chronic health effects. Spatial analyses further demonstrated contamination hotspots near agricultural spraying zones, while seasonal variation influenced physicochemical water quality and pollutant persistence. Despite regulatory efforts, critical research gaps remain, including limited longitudinal monitoring, inadequate evaluation of cumulative and mixture toxicity, insufficient exploration of non-agricultural contamination sources, and weak implementation strategies for sustainable alternatives.The review underscores the urgent need for integrated surveillance systems, farmer education on safe pesticide handling, improved regulatory enforcement, and adoption of sustainable pest management strategies. Strengthening evidence-based policymaking is essential to safeguard environmental integrity, public health, and long-term agricultural sustainability.

• 1.   Aktar, M.W., Sengupta, D., & Chowdhury, A. (2009). Impact of pesticides use in agriculture: Their benefits and hazards. Interdisciplinary Toxicology, 2(1), 1–12.
• 2.   European Food Safety Authority (EFSA). (2021). The 2019 European Union report on pesticide residues in food. EFSA Journal, 19(4), e06491.
• 3.   Food and Agriculture Organization. (2022). FAOSTAT statistical database. FAO.
• 4.   Food and Agriculture Organization & World Health Organization. (2014). The international code of conduct on pesticide management. FAO.
• 5.   Government of India. (2023). Agricultural statistics at a glance. Ministry of Agriculture222 Indian Journal of Forensic Medicine and Pathology IJFMP/Volume 19 Number 2 April–June 2026 and Farmers Welfare.
• 6.   Kim, K.H., Kabir, E., & Jahan, S.A. (2017). Exposure to pesticides and the associated human health effects. Science of the Total Environment, 575, 525–535.
• 7.   Matthews, G. (2008). Pesticide application methods (3rd ed.). Wiley-Blackwell.
• 8.   Mostafalou, S., & Abdollahi, M. (2013). Pesticides and human chronic diseases: Evidences, mechanisms, and perspectives. Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology, 268(2), 157–177.
• 9.   Pingali, P.L. (2012). Green Revolution: Impacts, limits, and the path ahead. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 109(31), 12302– 12308.
• 10.   Pimentel, D., & Burgess, M. (2014). Environmental and economic costs of pesticide use. In D. Pimentel & R. Peshin (Eds.), Integrated pest management (pp. 47–71). Springer.
• 11.   Sánchez-Bayo, F., & Wyckhuys, K.A.G. (2019). Worldwide decline of the entomofauna: A review of its drivers. Biological Conservation, 232, 8–27.
• 12.   Sharma, A., Kumar, V., Shahzad, B., et al. (2019). Worldwide pesticide usage and its impacts on ecosystem. SN Applied Sciences, 1, 1446.
• 13.   Stehle, S., & Schulz, R. (2015). Agricultural insecticides threaten surface waters. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 112(18), 5750–5755.
• 14.   Tilman, D., Cassman, K.G., Matson, P.A., Naylor, R., & Polasky, S. (2002). Agricultural sustainability and intensive production practices. Nature, 418, 671–677.
• 15.   United Nations Environment Programme. (2019). Global chemicals outlook II. UNEP.
• 16.   Wilson, C., & Tisdell, C. (2001). Why farmers continue to use pesticides despite environmental, health and sustainability costs. Ecological Economics, 39(3), 449–462.
• 17.   World Health Organization. (2020). Public health impact of pesticides used in agriculture. WHO.
• 18.   Yadav, I.C., Devi, N.L., Li, J., et al. (2015). Pesticides in surface water and groundwater in India: Distribution and human health risk assessment. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, 115, 1–9.

Data Sharing Statement

Funding