Abstract

Saffron, a dried stigma derivative of Crocus sativus, is tremendously rich in phytochemicals like crocin and safranal. For a long time, the phytochemicals of saffronhave remained obscure, and thereby its role in disease treatment remained subsidiary. Of late, researchers have gained momentum in studying its bioactivity because of its numerous beneficial health aspects. The pharmacological activities such as antioxidant, anti-cancer, anti-diabetic, anti-inflammatory, and anti-atherosclerotic of crocin and safranal, have recently been a focus of many researchers. Considering market value and demand, saffron has become the center stage of adulteration and, subsequently, illegal trade. This has prompted researchers to develop advanced, cost-effective analytical tools for rapidly detecting possible adulteration common in illegal saffron trading. This review provides greater insight into methods and counters detection techniques in the adulteration of saffron worldwide. Moreover, this review gives a detailed account of the phytochemicals specific to saffron and their potential role in treatments of various diseases
 

• 1.   • Saxena R. Botany, taxonomy and cytology of Crocus sativus series. Ayu. 2010;31(3):374.
• 2.   • Husaini A, Kamili A, Wani, Bhat. Sustainable saffron (Crocus sativus Kashmirianus) production: technological and policy interventions for Kashmir; 2010.
• 3.   • Varliklioz Er S, Eksi-Kocak H, Yetim H, Boyaci IH. Novel spectroscopic method for determination and quantification of saffron adulteration. Food Anal Methods. 2017;10(5):1547–55.
• 4.   • Karimi S, Feizy J, Mehrjo F, Farrokhnia M. Detection and quantification of food colorant adulteration in saffron sample using chemometric analysis of FT-IR spectra. RSC Adv. 2016;6(27):23085–93.
• 5.   • International Organization for Standardization. ISO 3632-1:2011 - Spices — Saffron (Crocus sativus L.) — Part 1: Specification [Internet]. Geneva: ISO; 2011 [cited 2019 Dec 17]. Available from: https://www.iso.org/standard/44523.html
• 6.   • Caballero-Ortega H, Pereda-Miranda R, Riverón-Negrete L, Hernández JM, Medécigo-Ríos M, Castillo-Villanueva A, et al. Chemical composition of saffron (Crocus sativus L.) from four countries. Acta Hortic. 2004;650:321–6.
• 7.   • Gohari AR, Saeidnia S, Mahmoodabadi MK. An overview on saffron, phytochemicals, and medicinal properties. Pharmacogn Rev. 2013;7(13):61–6.
• 8.   • Ahrazem O, Rubio-Moraga A, Nebauer SG, Molina RV, Gómez-Gómez L. Saffron: its phytochemistry, developmental processes, and biotechnological prospects. J Agric Food Chem. 2015;63(40):8751–64.
• 9.   • Baba SA, Malik AH, Wani ZA, Mohiuddin T, Shah Z, Abbas N, et al. Phytochemical analysis and antioxidant activity of different tissue types of Crocus sativus and oxidative stress alleviating potential of saffron extract in plants, bacteria, and yeast. S Afr J Bot. 2015;99:80–7.
• 10.   • Gismondi A, Serio M, Canuti L, Canini A. Biochemical, antioxidant and antineoplastic properties of Italian saffron (Crocus sativus L.). Am J Plant Sci. 2012;3(11):1573–80.
• 11.   • Hosseinzadeh H, Nassiri-Asl M. Avicenna’s (Ibn Sina) the Canon of Medicine and saffron (Crocus sativus): a review. Phytother Res. 2013;27(4):475–83.
• 12.   • Mgbeahuruike EE, Yrjönen T, Vuorela H, Holm Y. Bioactive compounds from medicinal plants: focus on Piper species. S Afr J Bot. 2017;112:54–69.
• 13.   • Zilaee M, Hosseini SA, Jafarirad S, Abolnezhadian F, Cheraghian B, Namjoyan F, et al. An evaluation of the effects of saffron supplementation on the asthma clinical symptoms and asthma severity in patients with mild and moderate persistent allergic asthma: a double-blind, randomized placebo-controlled trial. Respir Res. 2019;20(1):39.
• 14.   • Siddiqui M, Saleh MM, Basharuddin SBB, Zamri SB, Mohd Najib M, Che Ibrahim M, et al. Saffron (Crocus sativus L.): as an antidepressant. J Pharm Bioallied Sci. 2018;10(4):173-80.
• 15.   • Rajabi F, Rahimi M, Sharbafchizadeh M, Tarrahi M. Saffron for the management of premenstrual dysphoric disorder: a randomized controlled trial. Adv Biomed Res. 2020;9:60.
• 16.   • Razavi BM, Hosseinzadeh H. Saffron: a promising natural medicine in the treatment of metabolic syndrome. J Sci Food Agric. 2017;97(6):1679–85.
• 17.   • Ashktorab H, Soleimani A, Singh G, Amr A, Tabtabaei S, Latella G, et al. Saffron: the golden spice with therapeutic properties on digestive diseases. Nutrients. 2019;11(5):943.
• 18.   • Samarghandian S, Borji A. Anticarcinogenic effect of saffron (Crocus sativus L.) and its ingredients. Pharmacognosy Res. 2014;6(2):99–107.
• 19.   • Lopresti AL, Smith SJ, Metse AP, Drummond PD. Effects of saffron on sleep quality in healthy adults with self-reported poor sleep: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. J Clin Sleep Med. 2020;16(6):937–47.
• 20.   • Mykhailenko O, Kovalyov V, Goryacha O, Ivanauskas L, Georgiyants V. Biologically active compounds and pharmacological activities of species of the genus Crocus: a review. Phytochemistry. 2019;162:56–89.
• 21.   • Marieschi M, Torelli A, Bruni R. Quality control of saffron (Crocus sativus L.): development of SCAR markers for the detection of plant adulterants used as bulking agents. J Agric Food Chem. 2012;60(44):10998–1004.
• 22.   • Naeimi M, Shafiee M, Kermanshahi F, Khorasanchi Z, Khazaei M, Ryzhikov M, et al. Saffron (Crocus sativus) in the treatment of gastrointestinal cancers: current findings and potential mechanisms of action. J Cell Biochem. 2019;120(10):16330–9.
• 23.   • Milajerdi A, Djafarian K, Hosseini B. The toxicity of saffron (Crocus sativus L.) and its constituents against normal and cancer cells. J Nutr Intermed Metab. 2016;3:23–32.
• 24.   • Mahmoudabady M, Neamati A, Vosooghi S, Aghababa H. Hydroalcoholic extract of Crocus sativus effects on bronchial inflammatory cells in ovalbumin sensitized rats. Avicenna J Phytomedicine. 2013;3(4):356–63.
• 25.   • Sadi R, Mohammad-Alizadeh-Charandabi S, Mirghafourvand M, Javadzadeh Y, Ahmadi-Bonabi A. Effect of saffron (Fan Hong Hua) on the readiness of the uterine cervix in term pregnancy: a placebo-controlled randomized trial. Iran Red Crescent Med J. 2016;18(10):e27241.
• 26.   • Khazdair MR, Boskabady MH, Hosseini M, Rezaee R, Tsatsakis AM. The effects of Crocus sativus (saffron) and its constituents on nervous system: a review. Avicenna J Phytomedicine. 2015;5(5):376–91.
• 27.   • Bathaie SZ, Miri H, Mohagheghi MA, Mokhtari-Dizaji M, Shahbazfar AA, Hasanzadeh H. Saffron aqueous extract inhibits the chemically-induced gastric cancer progression in the Wistar albino rat. Iran J Basic Med Sci. 2013;16(1):27–38.
• 28.   • Amin A, Hamza AA, Bajbouj K, Ashraf SS, Daoud S. Saffron: a potential candidate for a novel anticancer drug against hepatocellular carcinoma. Hepatology. 2011;54(3):857–67.
• 29.   • Kang C, Lee H, Jung ES, Seyedian R, Jo M, Kim J, et al. Saffron (Crocus sativus L.) increases glucose uptake and insulin sensitivity in muscle cells via multipathway mechanisms. Food Chem. 2012;135(4):2350–8.
• 30.   • Xi L, Qian Z, Shen X, Wen N, Zhang Y. Crocetin prevents dexamethasone-induced insulin resistance in rats. Planta Med. 2005;71(10):917–22.
• 31.   • Xi L, Qian Z, Xu G, Zheng S, Sun S, Wen N, et al. Beneficial impact of crocetin, a carotenoid from saffron, on insulin sensitivity in fructose-fed rats. J Nutr Biochem. 2007;18(1):64–72.
• 32.   • Shirali S, Zahra Bathaie S, Nakhjavani M. Effect of crocin on the insulin resistance and lipid profile of streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. Phytother Res. 2013;27(7):1042–7.
• 33.   • Maeda A, Kai K, Ishii M, Ishii T, Akagawa M. Safranal, a novel protein tyrosine phosphatase 1B inhibitor, activates insulin signaling in C2C12 myotubes and improves glucose tolerance in diabetic KK-Ay mice. Mol Nutr Food Res. 2014;58(6):1177–89.
• 34.   • Hazman Ö, Aksoy L, Büyükben A. Effects of crocin on experimental obesity and type-2 diabetes. Turk J Med Sci. 2016;46(5):1593–602.
• 35.   • Dehghan F, Hajiaghaalipour F, Yusof A, Muniandy S, Hosseini SA, Heydari S, et al. Saffron with resistance exercise improves diabetic parameters through the GLUT4/AMPK pathway in-vitro and in-vivo. Sci Rep. 2016;6:25139.
• 36.   • Thakar M, Sharma T. Microwave assisted extraction of biological components of Crocus sativus with DNA barcoding technology. Int J Pharm Sci Res. 2018;47:82.
• 37.   • Nazari SH, Keifi N. Saffron and various fraud manners in its production and trades. Acta Hortic. 2007;739:411–6.
• 38.   • Lozano P, Castellar MR, Simancas MJ, Iborra JL. A quantitative high-performance liquid chromatographic method to analyse commercial saffron (Crocus sativus L.) products. J Chromatogr A. 1999;830(2):477–83.
• 39.   • Sujata V, Ravishankar GA, Venkataraman LV. Methods for the analysis of the saffron metabolites crocin, crocetins, picrocrocin and safranal for the determination of the quality of the spice using thin-layer chromatography, high-performance liquid chromatography and gas chromatography. J Chromatogr A. 1992;624(1–2):497–502.
• 40.   • Semiond D, Dautraix S, Desage M, Majdalani R, Casabianca H, Brazier JL. Identification and isotopic analysis of safranal from supercritical fluid extraction and alcoholic extracts of saffron. Anal Lett. 1996;29(6):1027–39.
• 41.   • Alonso GL, Salinas MR, Garijo J. Method to determine the authenticity of aroma of saffron (Crocus sativus L.). J Food Prot. 1998;61(11):1525–8.
• 42.   • Zalacain A, Ordoudi SA, Blázquez I, Díaz-Plaza EM, Carmona M, Tsimidou MZ, et al. Screening method for the detection of artificial colours in saffron using derivative UV-Vis spectrometry after precipitation of crocetin. Food Addit Contam. 2005;22(7):607–15.
• 43.   • Torelli A, Marieschi M, Bruni R. Authentication of saffron (Crocus sativus L.) in different processed, retail products by means of SCAR markers. Food Control. 2014;36(1):126–31.
• 44.   • Haghighi B, Feizy J, Kakhki AH. LC determination of adulterated saffron prepared by adding styles colored with some natural colorants. Chromatographia. 2007;66(5–6):325–32.
• 45.   • Alonso GL, Salinas MR, Garijo J, Sánchez-Fernández MA. Composition of crocins and picrocrocin from Spanish saffron (Crocus sativus L.). J Food Qual. 2001;24(3):219–33.
• 46.   • Nenadis N, Heenan S, Tsimidou MZ, Van Ruth S. Applicability of PTR-MS in the quality control of saffron. Food Chem. 2016;196:961–7.
• 47.   • Heidarbeigi K, Mohtasebi SS, Foroughirad A, Ghasemi-Varnamkhasti M, Rafiee S, Rezaei K. Detection of adulteration in saffron samples using electronic nose. Int J Food Prop. 2015;18(7):1391–401.
• 48.   • Ma XQ, Zhu DY, Li SP, Dong TT, Tsim KW. Authentic identification of stigma croci (stigma of Crocus sativus) from its adulterants by molecular genetic analysis. Planta Med. 2001;67(2):183–6.
• 49.   • Javanmardi N, Bagheri A, Moshtaghi N, Sharifi A, Kakhki AH. Identification of safflower as a fraud in commercial saffron using RAPD / SCAR marker. [Source name missing]; 2011. p. 31–7.
• 50.   • Maggi L, Sánchez AM, Carmona M, Kanakis CD, Anastasaki E, Tarantilis PA, et al. Rapid determination of safranal in the quality control of saffron spice (Crocus sativus L.). Food Chem. 2011;127(1):369–73.
• 51.   • Soffritti G, Busconi M, Sánchez RA, Thiercelin JM, Polissiou M, Roldán M, et al. Genetic and epigenetic approaches for the possible detection of adulteration and auto-adulteration in saffron (Crocus sativus L.) spice. Molecules. 2016;21(3):343.
• 52.   • Bathaie SZ, Farajzade A, Hoshyar R. A review of the chemistry and uses of crocins and crocetin, the carotenoid natural dyes in saffron, with particular emphasis on applications as colorants including their use as biological stains. Biotech Histochem. 2014;89(6):401–11.
• 53.   • Srivastava R, Ahmed H, Dixit RK, Dharamveer, Saraf SA. Crocus sativus L.: a comprehensive review. Pharmacogn Rev. 2010;4(8):200–8.