Indian Journal of Anatomy

Introduction: The gall bladder is an important component of the extrahepatic biliary apparatus which presents various morphological variations, the knowledge of which serves to be important during radiological scans and surgeries. The study aims to identify few anatomical variations in the dimensions, shape and position of gall bladder which would serve beneficial in the above mentioned procedures as well as in other anatomical, clinical and research settings. Methodology: The study comprised of 30 thoroughly dissected Liver specimens obtained from 10% formalin fixed cadavers of both genders and 20 ultrasonographic scans of abdomen from the Department of Anatomy and Department of Radiology, AIMS after the requested consent from Institutional Ethics Committee and the Head of Department. The study carried out for a period of four months from February 2025 to June 2025 considered the parameters length, breadth, shape of gall bladders and length of part below or above inferior border of liver for cadaveric specimens. Results: The mean length, breadth of gall bladders in cadaveric and ultrasonographic studies were 7.82±1.29, 3.66±0.81, 6.155±0.84 and 2.39±0.59. 20 gall bladders were below the inferior margin of liver (mean length = 1.76±1.07), 5 gall bladders were above the margin (mean length = 1.68±0.86) and 5 gall bladders were at the margin. The shapes observed were pear (57%), cylindrical (37%), quadrangular (3%) and others (3%). Conclusion: The study would serve important for working surgeons and radiologists treating and scanning cases of gall bladder diseases.

Background: Accurate stature estimation is essential in forensic identification, clinical practice, and nutritional assessment, particularly when direct height measurement is unfeasible. Forearm length has emerged as a reliable anthropometric surrogate, yet population-specific regression equations are critically lacking for rural-dwelling young adults in India. Objectives: To evaluate the correlation between forearm length and stature in healthy MBBS first-year students stratified by sex and age, and to derive a linear regression equation for stature estimation from forearm length. Methods: A prospective observational cross-sectional study enrolled 300 firstyear MBBS students (151 males, 149 females; age 18–24 years) using convenience sampling at a rural tertiary medical college. Stature and forearm length (radial head to ulnar styloid) were measured in duplicate following ISAK protocols. Pearson’s correlation, sex-stratified analysis, and simple linear regression were performed using SPSS v23. Results: Mean stature was 166.23 ± 8.73 cm and mean forearm length 25.05 ± 1.56 cm. A strong positive correlation between forearm length and stature was observed (r = 0.86, p < 0.001). Sex correlated strongly with stature (r = 0.67) and forearm length (r = 0.58), both p < 0.001. Age showed a weak but significant correlation with stature (r = 0.14, p = 0.016) but not with forearm length (r = 0.07, p = 0.202). The derived regression equation was: Stature (cm) = 45.612 + 4.814 × Forearm Length (cm) [R² = 0.739, SEE = 4.46 cm, F = 844.889, p < 0.001]. Conclusion: Forearm length is a strong, reproducible predictor of stature in young adult medical students from a rural Indian tertiary institution. The derived regression equation provides a practical, population-specific forensic and clinical tool.

Aim of study: 1) Morphology, morphometry and anatomical variations of retro hepatic segment of IVC. 2) Number, location and morphometry of ostia of major hepatic veins and number of minor openings. Introduction: Inferior vena cava (IVC) is the largest vein in human body and a main channel for venous return from lower limb, pelvis and abdominal viscera. Retro hepatic part lies in a groove in posterior surface of liver. Variations of IVC are important clinically. Hepatic veins drain into IVC near upper end. Variations in number, size and drainage pattern of hepatic veins is important. In surgery knowledge of the openings is relevant in treatment of hepatic trauma with avulsion of hepatic veins and resection of parts of diseased liver. Live doner liver transplantation (LDLT) is an emergency option in patients with end stage liver diseases needs knowledge of IVC and hepatic veins. Materials and methods: Study was done in Adichunchanagiri Institute of Medical Sciences for a period of 6 months from July 2025 - December 2025. 30 Liver specimens were collected from dept of anatomy from the eviscerated liver from cadavers used for undergraduate students. Posterior wall of IVC was cut longitudinally and length was measured from lower border at caudate process to upper border of IVC. Width of IVC was taken at midpoint of length using vernier calipers. Number and location of major hepatic veins (upper group) openings were noted. Measurement of ostia of opening was taken vertically. Number and location of minor openings were noted. Results: The average length of retro hepatic segment of IVC was 7.66 cm (range 5-10) and width in the midpoint was 8.65 mm (range 0.3 – 26 mm). The openings of hepatic veins were analysed as major openings in the upper part and minor openings in lower part of anterior wall of IVC. The number of major ostia were - Right Hepatic Veins (RHV) 38, Left Hepatic Veins (LHV) 42, Middle Hepatic Veins (MHV) 2. The mean vertical diameter of ostia were as follows – RHV 8.71 mm (range 0.28 – 18), LHV 6.75 mm (range 0.04 -14) and MHV 0.19 – 18mm. Total number of major openings 82 (RHV 38 +MHV 2+ LHV 42). Total number of minor openings were 183. Conclusion: The present study showed the length of retro hepatic segment was 7.66 cm. Number of major hepatic veins openings were (82). The detailed knowledge of morphometry of IVC and hepatic vein openings is important in surgical procedures.

Background: Cadavers are fundamental teaching tools that allow students and surgeons to study human structure in detail. The soft-fixation techniques have been developed to overcome the challenges while using formalin models and fresh-frozen cadavers. Soft embalming techniques were gradually developed in order to find a safer and economical alternative. Aim: The present narrative review aims to explore the key differences between soft embalming techniques. To examine their growing role in anatomical education, and surgical skill development. Methods: A literature search was performed using electronic databases including PubMed, Google Scholar, Scopus, Embase, Science Direct and Web of Science. Relevant articles published between 2000 and 2025 were identified and reviewed. The advantages, limitations and future prospects of various soft embalming techniques were critically reviewed. Results: Cadavers preserved with Thiel’s method have near normal tissue softness, natural organ colour. They can be used for training of ENT, cardiothoracic, and vascular surgery. Genelyn embalmed cadavers are better suited for laparoscopic and pelvic surgery training. N-vinyl-2-pyrrolidone (NVP) is particularly useful for neurosurgical training because of better preservation of neurological tissue.Softembalmed cadavers provide a platform for procedural rehearsals ranging from basic operative skills to microsurgical techniques. Soft-embalmed cadavers have emerged as versatile resources that support research and lifelong learning across modern medical sciences. Post-graduate students consistently report greater confidence and satisfaction when training on soft-embalmed models compared to other alternatives. Limitations: Financial and infrastructure limitations narrow down widespread implementation. Prolonged preparation periods and the need of well trained staff should also be considered. There is need of standardized preservation protocols. Conclusion: Soft embalming has transformed the study of anatomy by preserving structure with a life like feel to it. These techniques have not only benefitted undergraduate anatomy teaching but also postgraduate surgical training. Unlike formalin embalming, soft-embalmed cadavers allow students to learn anatomy in a clinically oriented pattern. Reforms in medical education, may lead to increasingly important role of soft embalmed cadavers for training. In future it may be possible to create increasingly sophisticated training environment to closely resemble real clinical practice. Increasing progress in embalming techniques ensures that these cadavers will remain indispensable tools for education in the years to come.

Background: The styloid process is a slender bony projection of the temporal bone that varies considerably in length, morphology, and calcification. When it becomes abnormally elongated, it can produce a symptomatic condition broadly known as Eagle syndrome, with craniofacial pain, dysphagia, and, less often, neurovascular compromise. Objective: To review the anatomical variations of the styloid process reported in the peer-reviewed literature and to relate these to symptomatology, diagnostic imaging, and management. Methods: A PubMed database search using the Boolean string: (“elongated styloid process” OR “styloid process elongation” OR “elongated styloid” OR “Eagle syndrome”) AND (“anatomical variation” OR “morphological variation” OR “styloid length” OR “styloid morphology” OR “calcified stylohyoid ligament”) AND (“clinical relevance” OR “clinical significance” OR “clinical symptoms” OR “dysphagia” OR “neuralgia”) filtered automatically by date, free full text, English language, and human studies, then screened and synthesised narratively. Risk of bias was appraised using the Joanna Briggs Institute checklists for case reports/ series and the Newcastle–Ottawa criteria for cross-sectional and retrospective studies. Results: Of 93 records identified, 14 studies met the eligibility criteria. Reported normal styloid length ranged from roughly 20–32 mm, with elongation thresholds of 30 mm most often applied and individual elongated processes measuring up to 75–80 mm. Morphological variants like continuous, segmented, and pseudo-articulated were most often classified using the Langlais system. Clinical presentations clustered into three overlapping phenotypes: classic oropharyngeal/cervicofacial pain with dysphagia; stylocarotid/neurovascular compression (transient ischaemic attack, stroke, carotid dissection, aneurysm); and styloidogenic jugular compression (headache, intracranial venous hypertension). Three-dimensional CT was the diagnostic reference standard throughout. Surgical styloidectomy achieved remission of symptoms. Conclusions: Elongation and morphological variation of the styloid process are anatomically diverse but clinically important, producing a recognisable yet frequently under-diagnosed spectrum of craniofacial, pharyngeal, and neurovascular symptoms. Standardised measurement and greater clinical awareness are needed to reduce diagnostic delay; surgical shortening remains the most reliably effective treatment for symptomatic cases.

Introduction: Pulmonary veins are responsible for carrying oxygenated blood from the lungs to the left atrium of the heart. Unlike other veins, they supply oxygen rich blood to the left atrium of the heart. They have thin walls and are valveless. Normally, four pulmonary veins are present: Right Superior, Left Superior, Right Inferior, Left Inferior hence presence of a supernumerary pulmonary vein is considered a rare anatomical variation. Case Report: After careful removal of heart from thoracic cavity, We observed the presence of two additional veins alongside of the four above mentioned pulmonary veins. Upon further investigation we noted that they emerged from the right lung draining independently into the left atrium. Supernumerary veins were identified along with the normal superior and inferior pulmonary veins. Conclusion: This study strongly emphasizes the importance of keeping this anomaly in mind so that recognition by radiologists and surgeons can help prevent surgical complications and improve success of interventional procedures.