International Physiology

Ethics form the cornerstone of academic work, guiding individuals in their pursuit of knowledge, truth, and intellectual growth. They emphasize honesty, integrity, and ethical conduct in all academic endeavors, fostering a culture of trust and respect. However, there have been many retractions of published papers from journals of great repute in recent years. Such incidents underscore the importance of scholarly ethics in medical education and research. As educators and researchers, we bear the responsibility of modelling ethical standards, which form the foundation of trust in academia and healthcare.
 

Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) represent a significant global health burden, necessitating innovative approaches for prevention and treatment. This review explores the multifaceted roles of vitamins specifically Vitamins C, D, E, K, and B complex—in maintaining cardiovascular health. Vitamins contribute to critical physiological processes, including antioxidant defense, inflammation modulation, vascular integrity, and lipid metabolism. Vitamin C enhances endothelial function and reduces oxidative stress, while Vitamin D regulates calcium homeostasis and mitigates arterial stiffness. Vitamin E prevents LDL oxidation and supports endothelial health. The B-complex vitamins lower homocysteine levels, reducing thrombotic risk, and Vitamin K prevents vascular calcification. Despite promising evidence, conflicting results from clinical trials underscore the need for personalized supplementation strategies and further research to establish definitive guidelines. This review highlights the potential of vitamins as complementary agents in CVD care, emphasizing the importance of balanced intake for cardiovascular health.
 

Background: Oxidative stress results from an imbalance between the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and the body’s antioxidative defenses. ROS, derived from oxygen, are essential in cellular signaling but can also damage cellular macromolecules, including lipids, proteins, and DNA, when produced excessively. This imbalance is associated with aging and a range of diseases, including atherosclerosis, neurodegenerative disorders, diabetes, and cancer. Aims: The aim of this article is to investigate the mechanisms of oxidative stress, its biological effects, and the role of antioxidants in mitigating oxidative damage. Additionally, the article explores the implications of oxidative stress in various diseases and potential therapeutic strategies.Materials and Methods: The article involves a comprehensive review of existing literature to elucidate the sources and types of ROS, their mechanisms of action, and the body’s enzymatic (e.g., superoxide dismutase, catalase) and non-enzymatic (e.g., vitamins C and E, glutathione) antioxidant defenses. Special attention is given to the biochemical pathways of ROS formation and detoxification. Results: Findings indicate that ROS are naturally produced during cellular metabolism and play dual roles in physiological and pathological processes. Under stress conditions or exposure to environmental toxins, ROS production overwhelms antioxidant defenses, leading to lipid peroxidation, protein oxidation, and DNA damage. Antioxidants mitigate this damage by neutralizing ROS, maintaining cellular integrity, and reducing the risk of oxidative stress-related diseases. Conclusion: Oxidative stress plays a pivotal role in aging and the development of chronic diseases. Antioxidants, both endogenous and exogenous, are crucial in managing oxidative damage. Enhancing antioxidant defenses through dietary intake or pharmacological interventions may provide therapeutic benefits and prevent oxidative stress-related pathologies. Further research into targeted antioxidant therapies is recommended to improve health outcomes.

The Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) regulates numerous involuntary bodily functions, including cardiovascular control, digestion, and thermoregulation. Disruptions in ANS function are associated with a diverse array of neurological and systemic disorders. Traditional autonomic testing methods, such as the Valsalva manoeuvre and orthostatic tests, primarily focus on cardiovascular reflexes, offering valuable yet indirect insights into autonomic pathways. However, technological advancements have led to the emergence of modern methods like heart rate variability (HRV) analysis, microneurography, and quantitative sudomotor axon reflex testing (QSART), which provide more precise assessments of both sympathetic and parasympathetic function. Despite their potential, the integration of these contemporary methods into routine clinical practice remains limited due to their complexity and resource requirements. This review aims to provide a comprehensive overview of classical and modern ANS testing methods, emphasising their clinical relevance in daily practice to enhance patient-care. Aims and Methods of ANS Testing: Autonomic nervous system (ANS) testing is essential for evaluating the severity and distribution of autonomic dysfunction, diagnosing conditions such as autonomic neuropathy and orthostatic intolerance, and monitoring disease progression or treatment efficacy. Most tests assess cardiovascular reflexes in response to various stimuli, activating sympathetic or parasympathetic outflow. Classical methods, including the Ewing Battery, Head-Up Tilt (HUT) test, and Deep Breathing Test, remain clinically significant, especially in settings lacking advanced technology. Contemporary methods have revolutionised ANS testing, with HRV analysis providing in-depth insights into autonomic control over heart rate, while Microneurography and QSART assess sympathetic nerve activity and sudomotor function, respectively. Conclusion: The evolution of autonomic function testing, from simple measures to advanced techniques, enhances our understanding of ANS regulation. Classical methods remain invaluable, yet newer technologies like HRV analysis and QSART offer detailed evaluations for complex autonomic conditions. Broad clinical integration of these contemporary methods alongside traditional approaches is essential for improving patient care.