Abstract

To see the inside of the live brain, to image the structure and function of the brain, neuroimaging technique is used. To explore the brain function and activity of normal human brain as well as various neurological disorders, imaging techniques revolutionized our understanding dramatically. Starting from basic tools used for researchers to the diagnosis, neuroimaging techniques provided valuable noninvasive methods to study and analyze the neurological disorders. The essential imaging tools used for research are cellular microscopy, histochemistry and cytochemistry. For diagnosis innovative neuroimaging techniques are computed tomography (CT) scan, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI),functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), positron emission tomography (PET), neurosonography, electroencephalogram (EEG), magneto-encephalogram (MEG) and near infrared spectroscopy (NIRS). Every technique has their own strength and shown to be crucial for better diagnosis, characterization, and treatment of various brain diseases. Regardless of notable progresses in the field of imaging, there is a greater need to boost spatial and temporal specificity, resolution and sensitivity.

• 1.   Kutschera U. Antonie van Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723): Master of Fleas and Father of Microbiology. Microorganisms 2023 Aug 2;
• 2.   Mishra S.K., Singh P. History of neuroimaging: the legacy of William Oldendorf. J Child Neurol. 2010 Apr; 25(4): 508-17.
• 3.   Yen C., Lin C.L., Chiang M.C. Exploring the Frontiers of Neuroimaging: A Review of Recent Advances in Understanding Brain Functioning and Disorders. Life (Basel) 2023 Jun 29; 13(7): 1472.
• 4.   Bakota L., Brandt R. Live-cell imaging in the study of neurodegeneration. Int Rev Cell Mol Biol. 2009; 276: 49-103.
• 5.   Weissmann C., Brandt R. Mechanisms of neurodegenerative diseases: insights from live cell imaging. J Neurosci Res. 2008 Feb 15; 86(3): 504-11.
• 6.   Evangelisti C., Ramadan S., Orlacchio A., Panza E. Experimental Cell Models for Investigating Neurodegenerative Diseases. International Journal of Molecular Sciences 2024; 25(17): 9747.
• 7.   Withers P.J., Bouman C., Carmignato S., Cnudde V., Grimaldi D., Hagen C.K., Maire E., Manley M., Du Plessis A., Stock S.R. X-ray
• 8.   Hillal, A., Ullberg, T., Ramgren, B. et al. Computed tomography in acute intra-cerebral hemorrhage: neuroimaging predictors of
• 9.   Van Schependom J., D’haeseleer M. Advances in Neurodegenerative Diseases. J Clin Med. 2023 Feb 21; 12(5): 1709.
• 10.   Du L., Roy S., Wang P., Li Z., Qiu X., Zhang Y., Yuan J., Guo B. Unveiling the future: Advancements in MRI imaging for
• 11.   Iyad N., S. Ahmad M., Alkhatib S.G., Hjouj M. Gadolinium contrast agents-challenges and opportunities of a multidisciplinary approach: Literature review. Eur J Radiol Open 2023 4; 11: 100503.
• 12.   Geethanath S., Vaughan J.T. Jr. Accessible magnetic resonance imaging: A review. J MagnReson Imaging. 2019; 49(7): 65–77.
• 13.   Leskinen S., Singha S., Mehta N.H., Quelle M., Shah H.A., D’Amico R.S. Applications of Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging to the Study of Functional Connectivity and Activation in Neurological Disease: A Scoping Review of the Literature. World Neurosurg. 2024 Sep; 189: 185-192.
• 14.   Chen J.J. Functional MRI of brain physiology in aging and neurodegenerative diseases. Neuroimage. 2019 Feb 15; 187: 209-225.
• 15.   Cecchin D., Garibotto V., Law I., Goffin K. PET Imaging in Neurodegeneration and Neurooncology: Variants and Pitfalls. SeminNucl Med. 2021 Sep; 51(5): 408-418.
• 16.   Bronte A., Prieto E., Quincoces G., Erro E., Arbizu J. The basics of PET molecular imaging in neurodegenerative disorders with dementia and/or parkinsonism. EurRadiol. 2025 Feb 6.
• 17.   Li P.C., Tsui P.H. Advances in Ultrasound Imaging for Diagnostic and Therapeutic Purposes. J Med Biol Eng. 2022; 42(6): 745–6.
• 18.   Hoang, T.N., Lin, HC., Tsai, CH. et al. Passive Cavitation Enhancement Mapping via an Ultrasound Dual-Mode phased array to
• 19.   H.L. Liu, H.W. Chen, Z.H. Kuo and W.C. Huang, “Design and Experimental Evaluation s of a Low-Frequency Hemispherical Ultrasound Phased-Array System for Transcranial Blood– Brain Barrier Disruption,” in IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering. 2008. vol. 55, no. 10, pp. 2407-2416.
• 20.   Singh A. and Reynolds J.N.J. Therapeutic ultrasound: An innovative approach for targeting neurological disorders affecting

Data Sharing Statement

Funding