Abstract

Many distinct ethnic and cultural groups existed in the world since ancient times. Their origin can be traced back to ancient Indian civilization. Today they are to be found in everywhere. Although multi-racial and multi-cultural societies have existed earlier also, systematic examination of the phenomenon began in west in the eighteenth century and was mostly from the angle of race and race relations only.1 It became a potentially significant and critical issue only with the advent of nation-states expressing and enhancing their specific national cultures. This posed the problems of ethnic minorities, assimilation, discrimination and rights in the west. It led to many political upheavals, boundary changes and inter- state tensions. Till early 20th century ethnicity remained latent due to existence of more salient and more burning socio-economic issues. This situation changed after Second World War as people became more aware of their ethnic identities and their differences with others due to post-war expansions in contacts and communications.2 At this time many Afro-Asian countries became independent and faced ethnic conflicts in the process of nation building. It was hoped that this was a temporary problem which would automatically disappear with industrialization and modernization. However ethnic or ethno-national loyalties remained quite strong not only in developing but also in developed countries which increased academic interest in the phenomena. However, it is important to have conceptual clarity regarding various terms like ethnicity, ethnic group, minority group, interest group, ethno nation, nation, nationality etc.

• 1.   David L. Shills, International Encyclopedia of the Social Science, Vol. 5, The Macmillan Company and The Free Press, New York, 1968, p. 167.
• 2.   Joseph Rothschild, Ethnopolitics: A Conceptual Framework, Columbia University Press, New York, 1981, pp. 41-43.
• 3.   Robert H. Jackson, ‘Ethnicity’, Giovanni Sartori (ed.), Social Science Concepts, Sage Publications, New Delhi, 1984, p. 219.
• 4.   Urmila Phadnis, Ethnicity and Nation Building in South Asia, Sage Publications, New Delhi, 1990, p. 14.
• 5.   Paul R. Brass, Ethnicity and Nationalism: Theory and Comparison, Sage Publications, New Delhi, 1991, p. 18.
• 6.   Urmila Phadnis, Ethnicity and Nation Building in South Asia, Sage Publications, New Delhi, 1990, p. 267.
• 7.   Ibid. p. 265.
• 8.   Ibid.
• 9.   Shibutani and Kwan, Ethnic Stratification, Macmillan, New York, 1965,pp. 40-45.
• 10.   R.A. Schermerhorn, Ethnic Plurality in India, University of Arizona Press, Arizona, 1978, p.13.
• 11.   De Vos and Romanucci Ross (ed.), Ethnic Identity: Cultural Communities and Change, Mayfield Publishing Co, Palo Alto, 1975, pp. 9-18.
• 12.   Anya Peterson Royce, Ethnic Identities: Strategies of Diversity, Indiana University Press, Bloomington, 1982, pp. 17-33.
• 13.   Urmila Phadnis, Ethnicity and Nation Building in South Asia, Sage Publications, New Delhi, 1990, p.14.
• 14.   Ibid, p. 16.
• 15.   Robert H. Jackson, ‘Ethnicity’, Giovanni Sartori (ed.), Social Science Concepts, Sage Publications, New Delhi, 1984, p.207.
• 16.   Ibid.
• 17.   Kevin M. Brown, ‘Establishing Difference: Culture, Race, Ethnicity and Production of Ideology’, The Australian and New Zealand Journal of Sociology,. Vol. 22 NO. 2 July 1986, p. 175.
• 18.   Robert, H. Jackson, ‘Ethnicity’, Giovanni Sartori (ed.), Social Science Concepts, Sage Publications, New Delhi, 1984, p. 209.
• 19.   N. Glazer and D.P. Moynihan, Ethnicity: Theory and Experience, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, 1975, p. 7.
• 20.   Robert H. Jackson, ‘Ethnicity’, Giovanni Sartori (ed.), Social Science Concepts, Sage Publications, New Delhi, 1984, p.209-210.
• 21.   Ibid, p. 228.
• 22.   Ibid, p. 227.
• 23.   Rodolfo Stavenhagen, ‘Ethnic Conflicts and Their Impact on International Society’, International Social Science Bulletin, Vol. 3 UNESCO, February 1991, p. 119.
• 24.   Ibid, p. 120.
• 25.   Ibid, pp. 118-119.
• 26.   Paul R. Brass, Ethnicity and Nationalism: Theory and Comparison, Sage Publications, New Delhi, 1991, pp. 69-71.
• 27.   George, M. Scott Jr., ‘A Resynthesis of the Primordial and Circumstantial Approaches to Ethnic Group Solidarity: Towards an Explanatory Model, Ethnic and Racial Studies, Vol. 13, No. 2, April, 1990, p. 148.
• 28.   Ibid, p. 167.
• 29.   Paul, R. Brass, Ethnicity and Nationalism: Theory and Comparison, Sage Publications, New Delhi, 1991, pp. 71-72.
• 30.   Prasanta Sen Gutpa, ‘Towards Understanding Ethnicity, Ethnic Group and Ethnic Conflict: A Liberal Perspective’, in Ghosh and Chakrabarti (ed.), Ethno nationalism: Indian Experience, Chatterjee Publications, Calcutta, 1991, pp. 14-15.
• 31.   George M. Scott Jr., ‘A Resynthesis of the Primordial and Circumstantial Approaches to Ethnic Group Solidarity: Towards an Explanatory Model’, Ethnic and Racial Studies, Vol. 13, No. 2, April, 1990, p. 148.
• 32.   Ibid, p. 168.
• 33.   Ibid, p. 149.
• 34.   Ibid, p. 149.
• 35.   Ibid, p. 167.
• 36.   Paul R. Brass, Ethnicity and Nationalism: Theory and Comparison, Sage Publications, New Delhi, p. 74.
• 37.   Prasanta Sen Gutpa, Towards Understanding Ethnicity, Ethnic Group and Ethnic Conflict: A Liberal Perspective’, in Ghosh and Chakrabarti (ed.), Ethno nationalism: Indian Experience, Chatterjee Publications, Calcutta, 1991, p. 21.
• 38.   Karl, W. Deutsch, ‘Social Mobilization and Political Development’, American Political Science Review, Vol-55, September 1961, pp. 493-514.
• 39.   Anthony, H. Richmond, ‘Ethnic Nationalism: Social Science Paradigms’, International Social Science Journal, Vol. III, February 1987, pp. 6-7.
• 40.   Ralph Petman, State and Class: A Sociology of International Affairs, London, 1979, pp. 105-135.
• 41.   Anthony H. Richmond ‘Ethnic Nationalism: Social Science Paradigms’, International Social Science Journal, Vol III, February 1987, p. 9.
• 42.   Urmila Phadnis, Ethnicity and Nation Building in South Asia, Sage Publications, New Delhi, 1990, p. 19.
• 43.   N. Glazer and D.P. Moynihon, Ethnicity: Theory and Experience, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, 1975, p. 3.

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